The historiographical horizon: contextualizing Sharkey's work
Heather Jane Sharkey's essay, "Domestic slavery in the nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century northern Sudan," occupies a crucial position within the studies of African slavery. Traditionally, historiography had focused on two main aspects: the trans-Atlantic and trans-Saharan trades, viewed as the primary drivers of the traffic. These studies tended to consider slaves as mere commodities or anonymous masses, focusing on the routes, numbers, and economic dynamics of buying and selling. A second line of research, instead, explored abolitionism, analyzing international pressures, colonial policies, and the figures of anti-slavery movements, often from a Eurocentric perspective that saw abolition as a triumph of Western civilization.

Sharkey departs from both these approaches. Her analysis shifts to a more intimate and social level: the experience of domestic slavery. This isn't a simple change of subject, but a genuine methodological revolution. The author invites us to consider slavery not just as an economic institution or a moral problem, but as a social and cultural structure deeply integrated into the fabric of daily life. The questions she poses are different: How did the slaves live? What were their roles within families? What kind of relationships were established between masters and slaves? This approach, which has had a significant echo in subsequent studies, made it possible to overcome a simplistic, binary view of slavery to reveal its complexity, ambiguities, and nuances. In this sense, Sharkey's work is an expression of a more mature historiography that seeks to reclaim the voices and experiences of people who have been historically marginalized.

The democratization of slavery: from luxury to common practice
A key point in Sharkey's argument concerns the radical transformation of the slave system in northern Sudan. Before the 19th century, slave ownership was a privilege of a small power elite. Sultans, tribal chiefs, and high-ranking religious figures used slaves as symbols of prestige and political power. They were employed as bodyguards, soldiers, court servants, or skilled artisans, helping to strengthen their masters' social standing. Their numbers were limited, and their presence marked a clear line of demarcation between the aristocracy and the common population.

The situation changed drastically with the Turkish-Egyptian invasion of 1820. The new authorities, with the goal of consolidating their control and enlisting a large army, intensified the practice of slave raids (the so-called ghazwas). The exponential increase in the supply of slaves led to a collapse in their market price, making their purchase accessible to a much wider segment of the Sudanese population. Slavery, from an elite institution, transformed into a mass practice. No longer just sultans, but also merchants, medium-sized landowners, and even farmers could afford to have one or more slaves for domestic or agricultural use. This "democratization" of slavery had profound consequences, not only by increasing the number of people enslaved but also by spreading its logic and social implications throughout every layer of society. Slave ownership became an indicator of social mobility, a way for new emerging classes to assert their status and emulate the behaviors of the old elites.

The moral wconomy of slavery: honor, idleness, and prestige
Sharkey's most audacious and original argument is her exploration of the role that slavery played in the moral economy of Sudanese society. The author argues that domestic slavery cannot be understood solely in terms of economic profit. Rather, it was a form of "conspicuous consumption," a means of flaunting social status and prestige. True wealth wasn't just the quantity of goods owned, but the ability to not have to work. Idleness, the absence of physical labor, was the hallmark of nobility and success.

This "idleness ethic" was at the heart of the value system. Having slaves meant being able to delegate manual and strenuous tasks, allowing the master and their family to engage in leisure, social activities, or simply do nothing. This wasn't just a convenience, but a public assertion of one's position. A family's honor and respectability were closely tied to having enough slaves to avoid any form of degrading work. When British colonial powers began to impose abolition measures, the resistance wasn't just economic. It was above all a cultural resistance. The loss of slaves didn't just mean the loss of labor, but the loss of honor, reputation, and social identity. Going back to working the land or doing domestic chores was perceived as an unbearable humiliation. This deep-seated rooting of slavery in social values explains why its eradication was a long and difficult process, meeting with passive and active resistance that went far beyond the simple defense of economic interests.

The thousand faces of domestic slavery: diversity and complexity
A thorough analysis of Sharkey's work must necessarily focus on the extraordinary diversity of slaves' experiences. The author challenges the idea of a "typical slave," showing how each life was shaped by a series of factors, including sex, age, personal skills, the type of work performed, and the master's personality. For example, male slaves could be employed as skilled artisans (blacksmiths, carpenters), traders, or agricultural workers, while female slaves were often assigned to domestic chores (cooking, cleaning, grinding grain) or could take on the role of wet nurses or concubines.

This diversification of roles is crucial for understanding power dynamics. In some cases, slaves with specific skills could enjoy a certain degree of autonomy and respect. They could even accumulate a small amount of wealth or hold a trusted role within the master's family. Sharkey emphasizes that while this didn't erase their enslaved condition, it offered a range of experiences and relationships that were far from the stereotypical image of a slave as a being without will or inner life. At the same time, the author does not idealize these situations. She points out that vulnerability was a constant in the lives of slaves, who depended entirely on the benevolence (or brutality) of their masters. The possibility of being sold, punished, or separated from family was an ever-present threat, making their existence precarious.

The silence of the sources: a methodological challenge
Sharkey's work is also an important reflection on historiographical methodology. The author confronts the fundamental problem of any historian who deals with marginalized groups: the absence of primary sources written by the slaves themselves. The history of slavery in Sudan has been narrated almost exclusively by external observers: the accounts of European travelers, the notes of British colonial administrators, and the legal and religious documents produced by the Sudanese elites. These sources, while valuable, are intrinsically biased and often reflect racial, cultural, and class prejudices. They tend to portray slaves as passive and lacking agency or to focus on anecdotes that confirm the authors' preconceived ideas.

To overcome this gap, Sharkey adopts a critical and interdisciplinary approach. She analyzes the sources "against the grain," reading between the lines to catch clues of slaves' resistance, negotiation, and self-assertion. For example, the laws that regulated slavery indirectly reveal the challenges masters faced in maintaining control. The stories of runaway or rebellious slaves, even if filtered through the accounts of their pursuers, show a will to act and fight for freedom. The author also integrates oral and folkloric sources, albeit with caution, to try and recover fragments of a historical memory that would otherwise be lost. This methodological effort makes her essay not only a study on slavery but also a manual on how to do history of subaltern groups when sources are scarce and hostile.

The unresolved legacy: slavery in the collective memory of contemporary Sudan
Sharkey's analysis does not end with the formal abolition of slavery. Her work sheds crucial light on the longevity and legacy of this institution in modern Sudan. Despite slavery being legally abolished, the social hierarchies and divisions it created persist. The dichotomy between "free people" and descendants of slaves, often based on ethnic or geographical differences, continues to influence access to education, resources, and political power. The prejudices and stereotypes that justified slavery have not disappeared and continue to manifest in various forms of discrimination.

The unresolved legacy: a shadow on the present
Sharkey's analysis does not end with the formal abolition of slavery, but sheds crucial light on its persistent legacy in contemporary Sudanese society. Although slavery has been legally abolished, the social hierarchies and divisions it created have not disappeared. The dichotomy between "free people" and descendants of slaves, often based on ethnic or geographical differences, continues to influence access to education, resources, and political power. The prejudices and stereotypes that justified slavery have not vanished and continue to manifest in various forms of discrimination and social tension.

This persistence is a wound found in many post-slavery societies, and here we can draw a significant parallel with the American experience. In the United States, although slavery was abolished over 150 years ago, its legacy continues to live on in the deep racial inequalities and tensions that cross the country. The ideology of racial superiority that justified slavery gave rise to extreme forms of hatred, such as those promoted by groups like the Ku Klux Klan, but it also infiltrated more subtly into social, economic, and even legal structures, creating a systemic racism that is still difficult to eradicate today.

In both contexts, historical memory is a battleground. Many prefer not to talk about the past, or they recount it in an idealized way, to avoid facing painful truths and unresolved wounds. Sharkey's essay is a fundamental contribution to this debate, providing a tool for a more honest and critical reflection. Understanding slavery not just as an aberration of the past, but as a force that shaped the identity, values, and social structures of Sudan for generations, is the first step toward addressing its lasting consequences. Her work teaches us that the legacy of slavery resides not only in physical scars, but also in the social divisions, implicit hierarchies, and cultural narratives that continue to shape the present. Sharkey's analysis, with its depth and rigor, is an invitation to look to the past to understand the complexities of the present and to work toward a more just future.

Bibliography
Sharkey, Heather Jane. "Domestic slavery in the nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century northern Sudan." Journal of African History, vol. 33, no. 1, 1992, pp. 1-28.

Lovejoy, Paul E. "African and Atlantic History." History Compass, vol. 5, no. 2, 2007, pp. 509–523.

Sikainga, Ahmad Alawad. Slaves into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan. University of Texas Press, 1996.

Spaulding, Jay. The Heroic Age in Sinnar. Michigan State University Press, 1985.

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